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python-cheatsheet
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Class, Json, SQLite, Image, Pandas

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Jure Šorn 20 hours ago
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  1. 64
      README.md
  2. 70
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64
README.md
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@ -975,15 +975,15 @@ class MyClass:
def get_class_name(cls):
return cls.__name__
```
* **Return value of str() should be readable and of repr() unambiguous.**
* **If only repr() is defined, it will also be used for str().**
* **Methods decorated with `'@staticmethod'` do not receive 'self' nor 'cls' as their first arg.**
```python
>>> obj = MyClass(1)
>>> obj.a, str(obj), repr(obj)
(1, '1', 'MyClass(1)')
```
* **Return value of str() should be readable and of repr() unambiguous.**
* **If only repr() is defined, it will also be used for str().**
* **Methods decorated with `'@staticmethod'` do not receive 'self' nor 'cls' as their first argument.**
#### Expressions that call the str() method:
```python
@ -1769,22 +1769,22 @@ JSON
```python
import json
<str> = json.dumps(<object>) # Converts object to JSON string.
<object> = json.loads(<str>) # Converts JSON string to object.
<str> = json.dumps(<list/dict>) # Converts collection to JSON string.
<coll> = json.loads(<str>) # Converts JSON string to collection.
```
### Read Object from JSON File
### Read Collection from JSON File
```python
def read_json_file(filename):
with open(filename, encoding='utf-8') as file:
return json.load(file)
```
### Write Object to JSON File
### Write Collection to JSON File
```python
def write_to_json_file(filename, an_object):
def write_to_json_file(filename, list_or_dict):
with open(filename, 'w', encoding='utf-8') as file:
json.dump(an_object, file, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)
json.dump(list_or_dict, file, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)
```
@ -1884,41 +1884,41 @@ def write_to_csv_file(filename, rows, mode='w', **csv_params):
SQLite
------
**A server-less database engine that stores each database into a separate file.**
**A server-less database engine that stores each database into its own file.**
```python
import sqlite3
<conn> = sqlite3.connect(<path>) # Opens existing or new file. Also ':memory:'.
<conn>.close() # Closes connection. Discards uncommitted data.
<conn> = sqlite3.connect(<path>) # Opens existing or new file. Also ':memory:'.
<conn>.close() # Closes connection. Discards uncommitted data.
```
### Read
```python
<cursor> = <conn>.execute('<query>') # Can raise a subclass of sqlite3.Error.
<tuple> = <cursor>.fetchone() # Returns next row. Also next(<cursor>).
<list> = <cursor>.fetchall() # Returns remaining rows. Also list(<cursor>).
<cursor> = <conn>.execute('<query>') # Can raise a subclass of sqlite3.Error.
<tuple> = <cursor>.fetchone() # Returns next row. Also next(<cursor>).
<list> = <cursor>.fetchall() # Returns remaining rows. Also list(<cursor>).
```
### Write
```python
<conn>.execute('<query>') # Can raise a subclass of sqlite3.Error.
<conn>.commit() # Saves all changes since the last commit.
<conn>.rollback() # Discards all changes since the last commit.
<conn>.execute('<query>') # Can raise a subclass of sqlite3.Error.
<conn>.commit() # Saves all changes since the last commit.
<conn>.rollback() # Discards all changes since the last commit.
```
#### Or:
```python
with <conn>: # Exits the block with commit() or rollback(),
<conn>.execute('<query>') # depending on whether any exception occurred.
with <conn>: # Exits the block with commit() or rollback(),
<conn>.execute('<query>') # depending on whether any exception occurred.
```
### Placeholders
```python
<conn>.execute('<query>', <list/tuple>) # Replaces '?'s in query with values.
<conn>.execute('<query>', <dict/namedtuple>) # Replaces ':<key>'s with values.
<conn>.executemany('<query>', <coll_of_above>) # Runs execute() multiple times.
<conn>.execute('<query>', <list/tuple>) # Replaces '?'s in query with values.
<conn>.execute('<query>', <dict/namedtuple>) # Replaces ':<key>'s with values.
<conn>.executemany('<query>', <coll_of_coll>) # Runs execute() multiple times.
```
* **Passed values can be of type str, int, float, bytes, None or bool (stored as 1 or 0).**
* **Passed values can be of type str, int, float, bytes, None, or bool (stored as 1 or 0).**
### Example
**Values are not actually saved in this example because `'conn.commit()'` is omitted!**
@ -1936,10 +1936,10 @@ with <conn>: # Exits the block with commit()
```python
# $ pip3 install sqlalchemy
from sqlalchemy import create_engine, text
<engine> = create_engine('<url>') # Url: 'dialect://user:password@host/dbname'.
<conn> = <engine>.connect() # Creates a connection. Also <conn>.close().
<cursor> = <conn>.execute(text('<query>'), …) # Replaces ':<key>'s with keyword arguments.
with <conn>.begin(): ... # Exits the block with commit or rollback.
<engine> = create_engine('<url>') # Url: 'dialect://user:password@host/dbname'.
<conn> = <engine>.connect() # Creates a connection. Also <conn>.close().
<cursor> = <conn>.execute(text('<query>'), …) # Replaces ':<key>'s with keyword arguments.
with <conn>.begin(): ... # Exits the block with commit or rollback.
```
```text
@ -2832,9 +2832,9 @@ from PIL import ImageDraw
<Draw>.point((x, y)) # Draws a point. Truncates floats into ints.
<Draw>.line((x1, y1, x2, y2 [, ...])) # To get anti-aliasing use Image's resize().
<Draw>.arc((x1, y1, x2, y2), deg1, deg2) # Draws in clockwise dir. Also pieslice().
<Draw>.rectangle((x1, y1, x2, y2)) # To rotate use Image's rotate() and paste().
<Draw>.rectangle((x1, y1, x2, y2)) # Also rounded_rectangle(), regular_polygon().
<Draw>.polygon((x1, y1, x2, y2, ...)) # Last point gets connected to the first.
<Draw>.ellipse((x1, y1, x2, y2)) # Also rounded_rectangle(), regular_polygon().
<Draw>.ellipse((x1, y1, x2, y2)) # To rotate use Image's rotate() and paste().
<Draw>.text((x, y), <str>, font=<Font>) # `<Font> = ImageFont.truetype(<path>, size)`
```
* **Use `'fill=<color>'` to set the primary color.**
@ -3340,7 +3340,7 @@ c 6 7
+----------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
```
* **All methods operate on columns by default. Pass `'axis=1'` to process the rows instead.**
* **Fifth result's columns are indexed with a multi-index. This means we need a tuple of column keys to specify a single column: `'<DF>.loc[row_k, (col_k_1, col_k_2)]'`.**
* **Fifth result's columns are indexed with a multi-index. This means we need a tuple of column keys to specify a column: `'<DF>.loc[row_key, (col_key_1, col_key_2)]'`.**
#### DataFrame — Multi-Index:
```python
@ -3348,7 +3348,7 @@ c 6 7
<DF> = <DF>.xs(row_keys, level=<ints>) # Rows that have first key on first level, etc.
<DF> = <DF>.set_index(col_keys) # Combines multiple columns into a multi-index.
<S/DF> = <DF>.stack/unstack(level=-1) # Combines col keys with row keys or vice versa.
<DF> = <DF>.pivot_table(index=col_key/s, …) # `columns=col_key/s, values=col_key/s`.
<DF> = <DF>.pivot_table(index=col_key/s, …) # `columns=key/s, values=key/s, aggfunc='mean'`.
```
#### DataFrame — Encode, Decode:

70
index.html
View File

@ -55,7 +55,7 @@
<body>
<header>
<aside>November 19, 2024</aside>
<aside>November 23, 2024</aside>
<a href="https://gto76.github.io" rel="author">Jure Šorn</a>
</header>
@ -817,15 +817,15 @@ player = Player(point, direction) <span class="hljs-comment">#
</code></pre></div>
<ul>
<li><strong>Return value of str() should be readable and of repr() unambiguous.</strong></li>
<li><strong>If only repr() is defined, it will also be used for str().</strong></li>
<li><strong>Methods decorated with <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">'@staticmethod'</span></code> do not receive 'self' nor 'cls' as their first arg.</strong></li>
</ul>
<pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-meta">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>obj = MyClass(<span class="hljs-number">1</span>)
<span class="hljs-meta">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>obj.a, str(obj), repr(obj)
(<span class="hljs-number">1</span>, <span class="hljs-string">'1'</span>, <span class="hljs-string">'MyClass(1)'</span>)
</code></pre>
<ul>
<li><strong>Return value of str() should be readable and of repr() unambiguous.</strong></li>
<li><strong>If only repr() is defined, it will also be used for str().</strong></li>
<li><strong>Methods decorated with <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">'@staticmethod'</span></code> do not receive 'self' nor 'cls' as their first argument.</strong></li>
</ul>
<div><h4 id="expressionsthatcallthestrmethod">Expressions that call the str() method:</h4><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">print(&lt;obj&gt;)
<span class="hljs-string">f'<span class="hljs-subst">{&lt;obj&gt;}</span>'</span>
logging.warning(&lt;obj&gt;)
@ -1471,19 +1471,19 @@ CompletedProcess(args=[<span class="hljs-string">'bc'</span>, <span class="hljs-
</code></pre></div>
<div><h2 id="json"><a href="#json" name="json">#</a>JSON</h2><p><strong>Text file format for storing collections of strings and numbers.</strong></p><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-keyword">import</span> json
&lt;str&gt; = json.dumps(&lt;object&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Converts object to JSON string.</span>
&lt;object&gt; = json.loads(&lt;str&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Converts JSON string to object.</span>
&lt;str&gt; = json.dumps(&lt;list/dict&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Converts collection to JSON string.</span>
&lt;coll&gt; = json.loads(&lt;str&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Converts JSON string to collection.</span>
</code></pre></div>
<div><h3 id="readobjectfromjsonfile">Read Object from JSON File</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-function"><span class="hljs-keyword">def</span> <span class="hljs-title">read_json_file</span><span class="hljs-params">(filename)</span>:</span>
<div><h3 id="readcollectionfromjsonfile">Read Collection from JSON File</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-function"><span class="hljs-keyword">def</span> <span class="hljs-title">read_json_file</span><span class="hljs-params">(filename)</span>:</span>
<span class="hljs-keyword">with</span> open(filename, encoding=<span class="hljs-string">'utf-8'</span>) <span class="hljs-keyword">as</span> file:
<span class="hljs-keyword">return</span> json.load(file)
</code></pre></div>
<div><h3 id="writeobjecttojsonfile">Write Object to JSON File</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-function"><span class="hljs-keyword">def</span> <span class="hljs-title">write_to_json_file</span><span class="hljs-params">(filename, an_object)</span>:</span>
<div><h3 id="writecollectiontojsonfile">Write Collection to JSON File</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-function"><span class="hljs-keyword">def</span> <span class="hljs-title">write_to_json_file</span><span class="hljs-params">(filename, list_or_dict)</span>:</span>
<span class="hljs-keyword">with</span> open(filename, <span class="hljs-string">'w'</span>, encoding=<span class="hljs-string">'utf-8'</span>) <span class="hljs-keyword">as</span> file:
json.dump(an_object, file, ensure_ascii=<span class="hljs-keyword">False</span>, indent=<span class="hljs-number">2</span>)
json.dump(list_or_dict, file, ensure_ascii=<span class="hljs-keyword">False</span>, indent=<span class="hljs-number">2</span>)
</code></pre></div>
<div><h2 id="pickle"><a href="#pickle" name="pickle">#</a>Pickle</h2><p><strong>Binary file format for storing Python objects.</strong></p><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-keyword">import</span> pickle
@ -1561,33 +1561,33 @@ CompletedProcess(args=[<span class="hljs-string">'bc'</span>, <span class="hljs-
writer.writerows(rows)
</code></pre></div>
<div><h2 id="sqlite"><a href="#sqlite" name="sqlite">#</a>SQLite</h2><p><strong>A server-less database engine that stores each database into a separate file.</strong></p><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-keyword">import</span> sqlite3
&lt;conn&gt; = sqlite3.connect(&lt;path&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Opens existing or new file. Also ':memory:'.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.close() <span class="hljs-comment"># Closes connection. Discards uncommitted data.</span>
<div><h2 id="sqlite"><a href="#sqlite" name="sqlite">#</a>SQLite</h2><p><strong>A server-less database engine that stores each database into its own file.</strong></p><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-keyword">import</span> sqlite3
&lt;conn&gt; = sqlite3.connect(&lt;path&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Opens existing or new file. Also ':memory:'.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.close() <span class="hljs-comment"># Closes connection. Discards uncommitted data.</span>
</code></pre></div>
<div><h3 id="read-1">Read</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;cursor&gt; = &lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># Can raise a subclass of sqlite3.Error.</span>
&lt;tuple&gt; = &lt;cursor&gt;.fetchone() <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns next row. Also next(&lt;cursor&gt;).</span>
&lt;list&gt; = &lt;cursor&gt;.fetchall() <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns remaining rows. Also list(&lt;cursor&gt;).</span>
<div><h3 id="read-1">Read</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;cursor&gt; = &lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># Can raise a subclass of sqlite3.Error.</span>
&lt;tuple&gt; = &lt;cursor&gt;.fetchone() <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns next row. Also next(&lt;cursor&gt;).</span>
&lt;list&gt; = &lt;cursor&gt;.fetchall() <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns remaining rows. Also list(&lt;cursor&gt;).</span>
</code></pre></div>
<div><h3 id="write-1">Write</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># Can raise a subclass of sqlite3.Error.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.commit() <span class="hljs-comment"># Saves all changes since the last commit.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.rollback() <span class="hljs-comment"># Discards all changes since the last commit.</span>
<div><h3 id="write-1">Write</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># Can raise a subclass of sqlite3.Error.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.commit() <span class="hljs-comment"># Saves all changes since the last commit.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.rollback() <span class="hljs-comment"># Discards all changes since the last commit.</span>
</code></pre></div>
<div><h4 id="or">Or:</h4><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-keyword">with</span> &lt;conn&gt;: <span class="hljs-comment"># Exits the block with commit() or rollback(),</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># depending on whether any exception occurred.</span>
<div><h4 id="or">Or:</h4><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-keyword">with</span> &lt;conn&gt;: <span class="hljs-comment"># Exits the block with commit() or rollback(),</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># depending on whether any exception occurred.</span>
</code></pre></div>
<div><h3 id="placeholders">Placeholders</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>, &lt;list/tuple&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Replaces '?'s in query with values.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>, &lt;dict/namedtuple&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Replaces ':&lt;key&gt;'s with values.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.executemany(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>, &lt;coll_of_above&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Runs execute() multiple times.</span>
<div><h3 id="placeholders">Placeholders</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>, &lt;list/tuple&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Replaces '?'s in query with values.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>, &lt;dict/namedtuple&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Replaces ':&lt;key&gt;'s with values.</span>
&lt;conn&gt;.executemany(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>, &lt;coll_of_coll&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Runs execute() multiple times.</span>
</code></pre></div>
<ul>
<li><strong>Passed values can be of type str, int, float, bytes, None or bool (stored as 1 or 0).</strong></li>
<li><strong>Passed values can be of type str, int, float, bytes, None, or bool (stored as 1 or 0).</strong></li>
</ul>
<div><h3 id="example-1">Example</h3><p><strong>Values are not actually saved in this example because <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">'conn.commit()'</span></code> is omitted!</strong></p><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-meta">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>conn = sqlite3.connect(<span class="hljs-string">'test.db'</span>)
<span class="hljs-meta">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>conn.execute(<span class="hljs-string">'CREATE TABLE person (person_id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name, height)'</span>)
@ -1600,10 +1600,10 @@ CompletedProcess(args=[<span class="hljs-string">'bc'</span>, <span class="hljs-
<div><h3 id="sqlalchemy">SQLAlchemy</h3><p><strong>Library for interacting with various DB systems via SQL, method chaining, or ORM.</strong></p><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-comment"># $ pip3 install sqlalchemy</span>
<span class="hljs-keyword">from</span> sqlalchemy <span class="hljs-keyword">import</span> create_engine, text
&lt;engine&gt; = create_engine(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;url&gt;'</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># Url: 'dialect://user:password@host/dbname'.</span>
&lt;conn&gt; = &lt;engine&gt;.connect() <span class="hljs-comment"># Creates a connection. Also &lt;conn&gt;.close().</span>
&lt;cursor&gt; = &lt;conn&gt;.execute(text(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>), …) <span class="hljs-comment"># Replaces ':&lt;key&gt;'s with keyword arguments.</span>
<span class="hljs-keyword">with</span> &lt;conn&gt;.begin(): ... <span class="hljs-comment"># Exits the block with commit or rollback.</span>
&lt;engine&gt; = create_engine(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;url&gt;'</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># Url: 'dialect://user:password@host/dbname'.</span>
&lt;conn&gt; = &lt;engine&gt;.connect() <span class="hljs-comment"># Creates a connection. Also &lt;conn&gt;.close().</span>
&lt;cursor&gt; = &lt;conn&gt;.execute(text(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;query&gt;'</span>), …) <span class="hljs-comment"># Replaces ':&lt;key&gt;'s with keyword arguments.</span>
<span class="hljs-keyword">with</span> &lt;conn&gt;.begin(): ... <span class="hljs-comment"># Exits the block with commit or rollback.</span>
</code></pre></div>
@ -2305,9 +2305,9 @@ img.show()
&lt;Draw&gt;.point((x, y)) <span class="hljs-comment"># Draws a point. Truncates floats into ints.</span>
&lt;Draw&gt;.line((x1, y1, x2, y2 [, ...])) <span class="hljs-comment"># To get anti-aliasing use Image's resize().</span>
&lt;Draw&gt;.arc((x1, y1, x2, y2), deg1, deg2) <span class="hljs-comment"># Draws in clockwise dir. Also pieslice().</span>
&lt;Draw&gt;.rectangle((x1, y1, x2, y2)) <span class="hljs-comment"># To rotate use Image's rotate() and paste().</span>
&lt;Draw&gt;.rectangle((x1, y1, x2, y2)) <span class="hljs-comment"># Also rounded_rectangle(), regular_polygon().</span>
&lt;Draw&gt;.polygon((x1, y1, x2, y2, ...)) <span class="hljs-comment"># Last point gets connected to the first.</span>
&lt;Draw&gt;.ellipse((x1, y1, x2, y2)) <span class="hljs-comment"># Also rounded_rectangle(), regular_polygon().</span>
&lt;Draw&gt;.ellipse((x1, y1, x2, y2)) <span class="hljs-comment"># To rotate use Image's rotate() and paste().</span>
&lt;Draw&gt;.text((x, y), &lt;str&gt;, font=&lt;Font&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># `&lt;Font&gt; = ImageFont.truetype(&lt;path&gt;, size)`</span>
</code></pre></div>
@ -2720,13 +2720,13 @@ c <span class="hljs-number">6</span> <span class="hljs-number">7</span>
<ul>
<li><strong>All methods operate on columns by default. Pass <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">'axis=1'</span></code> to process the rows instead.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Fifth result's columns are indexed with a multi-index. This means we need a tuple of column keys to specify a single column: <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">'&lt;DF&gt;.loc[row_k, (col_k_1, col_k_2)]'</span></code>.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Fifth result's columns are indexed with a multi-index. This means we need a tuple of column keys to specify a column: <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">'&lt;DF&gt;.loc[row_key, (col_key_1, col_key_2)]'</span></code>.</strong></li>
</ul>
<div><h4 id="dataframemultiindex">DataFrame — Multi-Index:</h4><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;DF&gt; = &lt;DF&gt;.xs(row_key, level=&lt;int&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Rows with key on passed level of multi-index.</span>
&lt;DF&gt; = &lt;DF&gt;.xs(row_keys, level=&lt;ints&gt;) <span class="hljs-comment"># Rows that have first key on first level, etc.</span>
&lt;DF&gt; = &lt;DF&gt;.set_index(col_keys) <span class="hljs-comment"># Combines multiple columns into a multi-index.</span>
&lt;S/DF&gt; = &lt;DF&gt;.stack/unstack(level=<span class="hljs-number">-1</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># Combines col keys with row keys or vice versa.</span>
&lt;DF&gt; = &lt;DF&gt;.pivot_table(index=col_key/s, …) <span class="hljs-comment"># `columns=col_key/s, values=col_key/s`.</span>
&lt;DF&gt; = &lt;DF&gt;.pivot_table(index=col_key/s, …) <span class="hljs-comment"># `columns=key/s, values=key/s, aggfunc='mean'`.</span>
</code></pre></div>
<div><h4 id="dataframeencodedecode">DataFrame — Encode, Decode:</h4><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;DF&gt; = pd.read_json/html(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;str/path/url&gt;'</span>) <span class="hljs-comment"># Run `$ pip3 install beautifulsoup4 lxml`.</span>
@ -2923,7 +2923,7 @@ $ deactivate <span class="hljs-comment"># Deactivates the active
<footer>
<aside>November 19, 2024</aside>
<aside>November 23, 2024</aside>
<a href="https://gto76.github.io" rel="author">Jure Šorn</a>
</footer>

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